Overview
On 1 October 1949 Mao Zedong proclaimed the People’s Republic of China in Beijing. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) had survived near-destruction in the 1930s, grown during the war against Japan, and defeated Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalists (Guomindang) in a civil war. Over the next quarter of a century Mao led China through campaigns of extraordinary ambition and violence, until his death in 1976.
Key dates
- 1934–1935 The Long March Key term · 1934–1935 Long March The retreat of the Communist Red Army from its base in Jiangxi to Yan'an in north-west China — some 9,000 km — to escape Guomindang encirclement. Why it matters Only a fraction of the marchers survived, but it became the CCP's founding legend, and Mao emerged as the party's leading figure during it. See in glossary → ; Mao emerges as the party’s leading figure.
- 1937–1945 War with Japan; the CCP expands from its base at Yan’an.
- 1946–1949 Civil war; the Guomindang retreats to Taiwan.
- 1 Oct 1949 The People’s Republic of China is proclaimed.
- 1950–1953 Land reform; the Korean War; campaigns against “counter-revolutionaries”.
- 1956–1957 The Hundred Flowers Campaign Key term · 1956–1957 Hundred Flowers Campaign Mao's invitation to intellectuals to criticise the party's work. Why it matters The criticism was so fierce that it was followed by the Anti-Rightist Campaign. Historians debate whether it was a genuine opening or a trap. See in glossary → , then the Anti-Rightist Campaign Key term · 1957–1959 Anti-Rightist Campaign The purge of those who had criticised the party during the Hundred Flowers Campaign, labelling around 550,000 people "rightists". Why it matters It silenced intellectuals and party members, so few dared to challenge the Great Leap Forward. See in glossary → .
- 1958–1962 The Great Leap Forward Key term · 1958–1962 Great Leap Forward Mao's campaign to transform China into an industrial and communist society at speed, through people's communes and mass mobilisation. Why it matters It caused the Great Chinese Famine and weakened Mao's position, leading to the recovery policies of Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping. See in glossary → and the Great Famine Key term · 1959–1961 Great Chinese Famine The famine caused by the Great Leap Forward's policies, made worse by bad weather in some regions. Why it matters It is usually estimated to have killed around 30 million people, with some historians estimating far more — the deadliest famine in recorded history. See in glossary → .
- 1966–1976 The Cultural Revolution Key term · 1966–1976 Cultural Revolution The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, Mao's campaign against alleged "capitalist roaders" in the party and "old" culture. Why it matters It removed Mao's rivals and strengthened his cult, but caused widespread violence, persecution, and damage to education and culture. See in glossary → .
- 9 Sep 1976 Mao dies; the Gang of Four Key term · 1966–1976 Gang of Four The radical faction led by Mao's wife, Jiang Qing, who promoted the Cultural Revolution. Why it matters Their arrest in October 1976, a month after Mao's death, ended the Cultural Revolution and opened the way for Deng Xiaoping's reforms. See in glossary → is arrested a month later.
Why did the Communists win?
- War with Japan. The Guomindang bore the brunt of Japan’s attacks and was weakened; the CCP expanded behind Japanese lines and won a reputation as patriotic resisters.
- Peasant support. Land reform in Communist areas and disciplined troops won support in the countryside.
- Guomindang weaknesses. Corruption, hyperinflation and repression cost Chiang the support of the cities and the middle class; many of his troops defected.
- Leadership and strategy. Mao’s guerrilla strategy and generals such as Lin Biao, and captured Japanese and American weapons, made the People’s Liberation Army formidable by 1948.
Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun.
Why this quote matters
Mao first used the phrase in 1927. It sums up his conviction — born of the Guomindang's massacre of Communists that year — that the party could only win and keep power through its own army.
Consolidating power
In the early 1950s land reform redistributed land and saw hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions, of landlords killed at mass “struggle sessions”. Campaigns against counter-revolutionaries and corruption targeted opponents and businessmen. The Korean War allowed Mao to present the regime as the defender of China against American imperialism.
In 1956 Mao invited criticism: “Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools of thought contend” Quotation · 1956 Mao Zedong Launching the Hundred Flowers Campaign Why it matters Whether the campaign was a genuine invitation or a trap to expose critics is debated — but the Anti-Rightist Campaign that followed silenced intellectuals for a generation. . When the criticism proved fierce, the Anti-Rightist Campaign branded some 550,000 people “rightists”.
The Great Leap Forward
Mao aimed to overtake Britain’s industrial output within fifteen years by mobilising China’s population. Peasants were organised into huge people’s communes Key term · from 1958 People's communes Huge rural units, often of thousands of households, that ran farming, industry, education and communal dining. Why it matters They removed private plots and incentives and made the disastrous grain requisitions of the Great Leap Forward possible. See in glossary → ; millions made steel in backyard furnaces; and exaggerated harvest reports led the state to requisition grain that did not exist. The result was the worst famine in history. When Marshal Peng Dehuai criticised the policy at Lushan in 1959, he was purged, and the campaign continued.
The Cultural Revolution
Sidelined after the famine, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution in 1966 to purge the party of those he accused of following a “capitalist road” — above all President Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping — and to revive revolutionary zeal. Millions of students joined the Red Guards Key term · 1966–1968 Red Guards Groups of students mobilised by Mao at the start of the Cultural Revolution to attack his enemies and "old" culture. Why it matters They showed Mao's ability to bypass the party and mobilise the young directly — until factional violence forced him to disband them and send millions to the countryside. See in glossary → , waving the Little Red Book Key term · 1964–1970s Little Red Book Quotations from Chairman Mao, compiled under Lin Biao for the army, which became the Red Guards' essential text. Why it matters A central symbol of the cult of personality — hundreds of millions of copies were printed. See in glossary → and attacking teachers, officials and the “Four Olds”. The chaos led Mao to send the army in and millions of young people to the countryside. The cult of Mao reached its height, while the country’s education system and cultural heritage suffered enormous damage.
Historians’ debate
Meisner, while critical of Mao’s methods, stressed that China was transformed into an industrial power with improved literacy and life expectancy.
Chang and Halliday portrayed Mao as a monster responsible for more peacetime deaths than any other leader. Many scholars criticised their selective use of sources, even while accepting the scale of the suffering.
Using provincial party archives, Dikötter estimated at least 45 million premature deaths in 1958–62, many caused by violence as well as starvation — a figure at the high end of estimates.
Test yourself
How did the war against Japan help the Communists? Reveal
The Guomindang suffered most of Japan’s attacks and was weakened and discredited, while the CCP expanded its territory and army behind Japanese lines and won a patriotic reputation.
Why did the Great Leap Forward cause famine? Reveal
Collectivisation into communes disrupted farming; labour was diverted to backyard steel production; officials exaggerated harvests to meet targets, so the state requisitioned grain that did not exist; and critics like Peng Dehuai were purged, so the policy continued.
What were Mao's aims in launching the Cultural Revolution? Reveal
To remove rivals such as Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, to reassert his own authority after the failure of the Great Leap Forward, and to revive revolutionary zeal among the young.
Key terms
- Anti-Rightist Campaign 1957–1959
-
The purge of those who had criticised the party during the Hundred Flowers Campaign, labelling around 550,000 people "rightists".
Significance: It silenced intellectuals and party members, so few dared to challenge the Great Leap Forward.
- Cultural Revolution 1966–1976
-
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, Mao's campaign against alleged "capitalist roaders" in the party and "old" culture.
Significance: It removed Mao's rivals and strengthened his cult, but caused widespread violence, persecution, and damage to education and culture.
- Gang of Four 1966–1976
-
The radical faction led by Mao's wife, Jiang Qing, who promoted the Cultural Revolution.
Significance: Their arrest in October 1976, a month after Mao's death, ended the Cultural Revolution and opened the way for Deng Xiaoping's reforms.
- Great Chinese Famine 1959–1961
-
The famine caused by the Great Leap Forward's policies, made worse by bad weather in some regions.
Significance: It is usually estimated to have killed around 30 million people, with some historians estimating far more — the deadliest famine in recorded history.
- Great Leap Forward 1958–1962
-
Mao's campaign to transform China into an industrial and communist society at speed, through people's communes and mass mobilisation.
Significance: It caused the Great Chinese Famine and weakened Mao's position, leading to the recovery policies of Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping.
- Hundred Flowers Campaign 1956–1957
-
Mao's invitation to intellectuals to criticise the party's work.
Significance: The criticism was so fierce that it was followed by the Anti-Rightist Campaign. Historians debate whether it was a genuine opening or a trap.
- Little Red Book 1964–1970s
-
Quotations from Chairman Mao, compiled under Lin Biao for the army, which became the Red Guards' essential text.
Significance: A central symbol of the cult of personality — hundreds of millions of copies were printed.
- Long March 1934–1935
-
The retreat of the Communist Red Army from its base in Jiangxi to Yan'an in north-west China — some 9,000 km — to escape Guomindang encirclement.
Significance: Only a fraction of the marchers survived, but it became the CCP's founding legend, and Mao emerged as the party's leading figure during it.
- People's communes from 1958
-
Huge rural units, often of thousands of households, that ran farming, industry, education and communal dining.
Significance: They removed private plots and incentives and made the disastrous grain requisitions of the Great Leap Forward possible.
- Red Guards 1966–1968
-
Groups of students mobilised by Mao at the start of the Cultural Revolution to attack his enemies and "old" culture.
Significance: They showed Mao's ability to bypass the party and mobilise the young directly — until factional violence forced him to disband them and send millions to the countryside.