Overview
Between 1933 and 1940 Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy broke the peace settlement of 1919 step by step. The League of Nations failed to stop Italy in Abyssinia; Britain and France followed a policy of appeasement Key term · 1930s Appeasement The policy of avoiding war by making concessions to an aggressor's grievances, associated with Neville Chamberlain's dealings with Hitler. Why it matters It reached its peak at Munich in 1938 and was abandoned after Germany occupied Prague in 1939. Historians still debate whether it was cowardice or a realistic policy for a weak Britain. See in glossary → towards Germany until March 1939. When Hitler invaded Poland, they declared war — and by June 1940 France had fallen and Italy had joined the war.
Key dates
- Oct 1933 Germany leaves the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations.
- Mar 1935 Hitler announces conscription and an air force, breaking the Treaty of Versailles Key term · 1919 Treaty of Versailles The peace treaty with Germany after the First World War — it took territory, limited the army to 100,000 men, demilitarised the Rhineland and imposed reparations. Why it matters German resentment of the treaty was a powerful force that Hitler exploited; breaking its terms one by one was the first stage of his foreign policy. See in glossary → .
- Apr 1935 Britain, France and Italy form the Stresa Front Key term · April 1935 Stresa Front An agreement between Britain, France and Italy to oppose German breaches of Versailles and to guarantee Austrian independence. Why it matters It collapsed within months — undermined by the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and then the Abyssinian Crisis — pushing Mussolini towards Hitler. See in glossary → .
- Oct 1935 Italy invades Abyssinia — the Abyssinian Crisis Key term · 1935–1936 Abyssinian Crisis Italy's invasion and conquest of Abyssinia (Ethiopia), a fellow League member. Why it matters The League's limited sanctions, which excluded oil, and the Hoare–Laval Pact exposed collective security as a failure and drove Italy towards Germany. See in glossary → .
- Dec 1935 The Hoare–Laval Pact Key term · December 1935 Hoare–Laval Pact A secret plan by the British and French foreign ministers to end the Abyssinian war by giving Italy much of Abyssinia. Why it matters Its leak caused public outrage and Hoare's resignation. It showed that Britain and France valued Italian friendship over the League's principles. See in glossary → is leaked.
- 7 Mar 1936 German troops enter the Rhineland — the remilitarisation of the Rhineland Key term · 7 March 1936 Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Hitler's movement of troops into the demilitarised Rhineland, breaking the Treaties of Versailles and Locarno. Why it matters A gamble that paid off when Britain and France did nothing; it boosted Hitler's confidence and prestige and weakened France's position. See in glossary → .
- Oct–Nov 1936 The Rome–Berlin Axis Key term · from 1936 Rome–Berlin Axis The alignment between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany announced in 1936, later formalised by the Pact of Steel (May 1939). Why it matters It ended Italy's role as a guarantor of Austria and left Britain and France facing hostile powers in both Central Europe and the Mediterranean. See in glossary → ; Germany and Italy intervene in Spain.
- Nov 1937 Hitler outlines his plans in the meeting recorded in the Hossbach Memorandum Key term · 5 November 1937 Hossbach Memorandum The record of a meeting at which Hitler told his military and foreign policy chiefs of his plans to expand, starting with Austria and Czechoslovakia. Why it matters Intentionalist historians see it as evidence of a plan; others note it was an unofficial summary and that events unfolded differently from what Hitler described. See in glossary → .
- Mar 1938 The Anschluss Key term · 12–13 March 1938 Anschluss The union of Austria with Germany, forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. Why it matters It added seven million Germans to the Reich and outflanked Czechoslovakia's defences. Britain and France protested but did nothing. See in glossary → with Austria.
- 29–30 Sep 1938 The Munich Agreement Key term · 29–30 September 1938 Munich Agreement The agreement by Germany, Italy, Britain and France that Germany should occupy the Sudetenland. Czechoslovakia was not consulted. Why it matters The high point of appeasement. Hitler's occupation of Prague in March 1939 showed it had failed and ended the policy. See in glossary → gives the Sudetenland Key term · 1938 Sudetenland The border regions of Czechoslovakia with large German-speaking populations and the country's main fortifications. Why it matters Hitler's demand for it produced the crisis resolved at Munich. Its loss left the rest of Czechoslovakia defenceless. See in glossary → to Germany.
- Mar 1939 Germany occupies the rest of Czechoslovakia; Britain and France guarantee Poland.
- Apr 1939 Italy invades Albania.
- 23 Aug 1939 The Nazi–Soviet Pact Key term · 23 August 1939 Nazi–Soviet Pact A non-aggression pact between Germany and the USSR, with a secret protocol dividing Poland and the Baltic region into spheres of influence. Why it matters It freed Hitler to invade Poland without fear of a war on two fronts, and gave Stalin territory and time. See in glossary → .
- 1–3 Sep 1939 Germany invades Poland; Britain and France declare war.
- May–Jun 1940 Germany conquers the Low Countries and France; Italy declares war on 10 June.
Aims
Hitler wanted to overturn Versailles, unite all Germans in one Reich, and win Lebensraum Key term · 1920s–1945 Lebensraum "Living space" — the Nazi goal of conquering land in Eastern Europe for German settlement. Why it matters It links Hitler's racial ideology to his foreign policy and is central to the argument that he planned a war of conquest in the East. See in glossary → (“living space”) in the East at the expense of Poland and the USSR — aims set out in Mein Kampf and bound up with his racial ideology.
Mussolini wanted a new Roman Empire: dominance of the Mediterranean and colonies in Africa, avenging Italy’s defeat at Adwa in 1896 and its disappointment at the peace settlement.
Abyssinia and the failure of collective security
Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia in October 1935 was the League’s great test in Europe. The League imposed sanctions but excluded oil, and Britain did not close the Suez Canal. The Hoare–Laval Pact, which would have given Italy much of Abyssinia, caused outrage when leaked. Italy completed its conquest in May 1936 — and drifted towards Germany.
Appeasement
The policy peaked in the Sudeten crisis of September 1938. As war seemed close, Chamberlain told the British people on the radio:
How horrible, fantastic, incredible it is that we should be digging trenches and trying on gas-masks here because of a quarrel in a far away country between people of whom we know nothing.
Why this quote matters
Chamberlain's words reflect a widespread reluctance to fight for Czechoslovakia — and ignore the Czechs' own position. They are often used to show how appeasement treated smaller states as bargaining chips.
At Munich, Britain, France, Germany and Italy agreed that Germany would occupy the Sudetenland; Czechoslovakia was not consulted. Chamberlain returned claiming “peace for our time” Quotation · 30 September 1938 Neville Chamberlain Speech outside 10 Downing Street Why it matters The phrase became a byword for the failure of appeasement when Hitler occupied Prague six months later. In fairness, Chamberlain also accelerated British rearmament. . Churchill told the Commons: “We have sustained a total and unmitigated defeat” Quotation · 5 October 1938 Winston Churchill Speech in the House of Commons Why it matters Churchill was isolated in 1938; his warnings gave him credibility when appeasement collapsed. .
From Prague to Poland
The occupation of Prague in March 1939 showed that Hitler’s aims went beyond uniting Germans. Britain and France guaranteed Poland. The Nazi–Soviet Pact of August 1939, with its secret protocol dividing Eastern Europe, removed the threat of a two-front war, and Hitler invaded Poland on 1 September. Mussolini, unready for a long war despite the Pact of Steel, stayed out until France was collapsing in June 1940.
Historians’ debate
Taylor argued that Hitler was a traditional German statesman who exploited opportunities others gave him rather than following a blueprint — a deliberately provocative thesis.
Trevor-Roper replied that Hitler pursued consistent long-term aims, above all Lebensraum in the East, set out in Mein Kampf.
Charmley defended Chamberlain’s policy as a rational response to Britain’s military, economic and imperial weaknesses, against the “Guilty Men” view that appeasers were naïve or cowardly.
Test yourself
Why was the remilitarisation of the Rhineland significant? Reveal
It broke Versailles and Locarno, and Britain and France did nothing. It strengthened Hitler’s position at home and abroad, allowed Germany to fortify its western border, and made France’s Eastern European alliances harder to honour.
Give four reasons Britain followed a policy of appeasement. Reveal
Fear of another world war and of bombing; the need to rearm first; economic weakness after the Depression; sympathy for German grievances over Versailles; fear of communism; and uncertain support from the Dominions and the USA.
Why did the Nazi–Soviet Pact make war over Poland likely? Reveal
It removed the threat of Soviet intervention and a two-front war, so Hitler believed he could invade Poland — and that Britain and France, unable to help Poland directly, might back down.
Key terms
- Abyssinian Crisis 1935–1936
-
Italy's invasion and conquest of Abyssinia (Ethiopia), a fellow League member.
Significance: The League's limited sanctions, which excluded oil, and the Hoare–Laval Pact exposed collective security as a failure and drove Italy towards Germany.
- Anschluss 12–13 March 1938
-
The union of Austria with Germany, forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles.
Significance: It added seven million Germans to the Reich and outflanked Czechoslovakia's defences. Britain and France protested but did nothing.
- Appeasement 1930s
-
The policy of avoiding war by making concessions to an aggressor's grievances, associated with Neville Chamberlain's dealings with Hitler.
Significance: It reached its peak at Munich in 1938 and was abandoned after Germany occupied Prague in 1939. Historians still debate whether it was cowardice or a realistic policy for a weak Britain.
- Hoare–Laval Pact December 1935
-
A secret plan by the British and French foreign ministers to end the Abyssinian war by giving Italy much of Abyssinia.
Significance: Its leak caused public outrage and Hoare's resignation. It showed that Britain and France valued Italian friendship over the League's principles.
- Hossbach Memorandum 5 November 1937
-
The record of a meeting at which Hitler told his military and foreign policy chiefs of his plans to expand, starting with Austria and Czechoslovakia.
Significance: Intentionalist historians see it as evidence of a plan; others note it was an unofficial summary and that events unfolded differently from what Hitler described.
- Lebensraum 1920s–1945
-
"Living space" — the Nazi goal of conquering land in Eastern Europe for German settlement.
Significance: It links Hitler's racial ideology to his foreign policy and is central to the argument that he planned a war of conquest in the East.
- Munich Agreement 29–30 September 1938
-
The agreement by Germany, Italy, Britain and France that Germany should occupy the Sudetenland. Czechoslovakia was not consulted.
Significance: The high point of appeasement. Hitler's occupation of Prague in March 1939 showed it had failed and ended the policy.
- Nazi–Soviet Pact 23 August 1939
-
A non-aggression pact between Germany and the USSR, with a secret protocol dividing Poland and the Baltic region into spheres of influence.
Significance: It freed Hitler to invade Poland without fear of a war on two fronts, and gave Stalin territory and time.
- Remilitarisation of the Rhineland 7 March 1936
-
Hitler's movement of troops into the demilitarised Rhineland, breaking the Treaties of Versailles and Locarno.
Significance: A gamble that paid off when Britain and France did nothing; it boosted Hitler's confidence and prestige and weakened France's position.
- Rome–Berlin Axis from 1936
-
The alignment between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany announced in 1936, later formalised by the Pact of Steel (May 1939).
Significance: It ended Italy's role as a guarantor of Austria and left Britain and France facing hostile powers in both Central Europe and the Mediterranean.
- Stresa Front April 1935
-
An agreement between Britain, France and Italy to oppose German breaches of Versailles and to guarantee Austrian independence.
Significance: It collapsed within months — undermined by the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and then the Abyssinian Crisis — pushing Mussolini towards Hitler.
- Sudetenland 1938
-
The border regions of Czechoslovakia with large German-speaking populations and the country's main fortifications.
Significance: Hitler's demand for it produced the crisis resolved at Munich. Its loss left the rest of Czechoslovakia defenceless.
- Treaty of Versailles 1919
-
The peace treaty with Germany after the First World War — it took territory, limited the army to 100,000 men, demilitarised the Rhineland and imposed reparations.
Significance: German resentment of the treaty was a powerful force that Hitler exploited; breaking its terms one by one was the first stage of his foreign policy.